Psychology Study Guide

📖 Core Concepts Psychology – the scientific study of the mind and behavior (human & non‑human, conscious & unconscious). Psychologist – a professional who conducts research or applies psychological knowledge (clinical, experimental, etc.). Major Subfields – Biological, Cognitive, Social, Clinical, Developmental, Neuropsychology, Evolutionary, Industrial‑Organizational, Health, etc. Schools of Thought Structuralism: break mental processes into basic elements (introspection). Functionalism: focus on the adaptive purpose of behavior and mental processes. Gestalt: experience is organized as wholes, not the sum of parts. Behaviorism: study only observable behavior; internal states are not required. Cognitive: information‑processing view of perception, memory, language, problem solving. Humanistic/Existential: free will, self‑actualization, meaning, authenticity. Biological Psychology – links brain structure/function (e.g., Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area) to behavior; uses neuroscience tools (fMRI, EEG). Personality Models – Big Five (O‑C‑E‑A‑N) and Eysenck’s three‑factor model (Extraversion, Neuroticism, Psychoticism). Motivation – Drive‑reduction theory (Hull) and modern goal‑contagion/approach‑avoidance models. Ethical Foundations – Beneficence, Fidelity, Integrity, Justice, Respect for Rights & Dignity; IRB review & informed consent. --- 📌 Must Remember Psychology = science of mental life and its conditions (William James, 1890). Weber–Fechner law: perceived intensity ∝ log(actual intensity). First lab: Wilhelm Wundt, Leipzig, 1879 – birth of experimental psychology. Classical conditioning: neutral stimulus → CS → paired with US → CR (Pavlov). Operant conditioning: behavior followed by reinforcement → increased; punishment → decreased (Skinner). Big Five traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism. Eysenck’s 3 traits: Extraversion‑Introversion, Neuroticism‑Stability, Psychoticism‑Normality. Freud’s structural model: Id (instinctual drives), Ego (reality‑oriented), Superego (moral standards). APA Ethical Principles – 5 core standards (Beneficence, Fidelity, Integrity, Justice, Respect). Replication crisis: only 40 % of studies replicate; preregistration & result‑blind review are reforms. --- 🔄 Key Processes Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Identify Unconditioned Stimulus (US) → Unconditioned Response (UR). Pair Neutral Stimulus (NS) with US repeatedly → NS becomes Conditioned Stimulus (CS). CS now elicits Conditioned Response (CR). Extinction: present CS without US → CR diminishes. Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Reinforcement (positive → add, negative → remove) → ↑ behavior. Punishment (positive → add, negative → remove) → ↓ behavior. Schedules: Fixed‑Ratio, Variable‑Ratio, Fixed‑Interval, Variable‑Interval. Experimental Research Cycle Formulate hypothesis → choose design (true experiment vs quasi). Randomly assign participants → manipulate IV (independent variable). Measure DV (dependent variable) → statistical analysis (ANOVA, regression). Draw inference → publish; consider replication & effect size. Ethical Review Process Draft protocol → submit to IRB/ethics committee. Obtain informed consent (voluntary, comprehensible). Minimize risk, allow withdrawal, debrief participants. --- 🔍 Key Comparisons Behaviorism vs. Cognitive Psychology Behaviorism: observable stimulus‑response; no mental constructs. Cognitive: internal mental representations, information processing. Structuralism vs. Functionalism Structuralism: break mind into basic elements (introspection). Functionalism: ask why mental processes exist (adaptation). Big Five vs. Eysenck's Model Big Five: five broad dimensions, empirically derived via factor analysis. Eysenck: three biologically‑linked traits; focuses on arousal & impulsivity. Clinical Psychologist vs. Psychiatrist Clinical Psychologist: doctoral training, non‑medical, provides assessment & psychotherapy. Psychiatrist: medical doctor, can prescribe medication. APA Code vs. CPA (Canadian) Code APA: five principles; emphasizes scientific integrity. CPA: four principles (dignity, caring, integrity, societal responsibility). --- ⚠️ Common Misunderstandings “Psychology only studies behavior.” – Modern psychology also investigates internal mental processes (cognition, emotion). “Personality can be directly measured.” – Personality is inferred from self‑reports, behavior, or physiological proxies; measurement is indirect. “Freud’s theory is falsifiable.” – Critics argue it is not empirically testable (Popper). “All learning is stimulus‑response.” – Cognitive and social learning (Bandura) emphasize observation and internal modeling. “The MMPI measures normal personality.” – It primarily assesses psychopathology. --- 🧠 Mental Models / Intuition Brain‑Behavior as Hardware‑Software – Brain regions = hardware; mental processes = software running on that hardware. Stimulus‑Response Loop – Think of a thermostat: environmental input triggers a response that feeds back to change the environment. Information‑Processing Pipeline – Sensory input → attention filter → encoding → storage → retrieval (like a computer’s RAM). --- 🚩 Exceptions & Edge Cases Classical conditioning may fail with biologically prepared stimuli (e.g., taste aversion after one trial). Personality inventories like the MMPI are poor for assessing normal trait variance; use Big Five questionnaires instead. Ethical deception is allowed only when no viable alternative, participants are debriefed, and no lasting harm. Behavioral genetics: traits are highly polygenic; single‑gene explanations are oversimplified. --- 📍 When to Use Which Classical conditioning → explaining fear acquisition, phobias, taste aversion. Operant conditioning → behavior modification programs, ABA for autism, workplace incentive design. Big Five inventory → research on trait‑outcome relationships, personnel selection. fMRI → testing neural correlates of cognitive tasks (e.g., memory encoding). Survey method → measuring attitudes, self‑reported stress, large‑scale public‑health attitudes. Qualitative interview → exploring lived experience, generating theory (grounded theory). --- 👀 Patterns to Recognize Paired stimulus‑response → likely a classical conditioning question. Reinforcement → increased frequency, punishment → decreased frequency → operant scenario. High correlation + no manipulation → correlation, not causation trap. WEIRD sample → results may not generalize globally. Repeated “latency” or “RT” differences → attention or processing speed measures. --- 🗂️ Exam Traps Confusing Broca’s vs. Wernicke’s area – Broca = speech production (left frontal); Wernicke = comprehension (temporal). Mix‑up of structuralism vs. functionalism – structuralism = “what are the parts?”; functionalism = “what are they for?” Assuming a “behaviorist” explanation automatically rules out cognition – modern approaches often integrate both (cognitive‑behavioral). Choosing MMPI for normal personality assessment – distractor; use Big Five instead. Selecting “deception is always prohibited” – unethical only if unnecessary; approved with debriefing. ---