Cognitive psychology Study Guide

📖 Core Concepts Cognitive psychology – scientific study of mental processes (attention, perception, memory, language, problem solving, reasoning). Attention – selective focus on a subset of sensory input; filters out irrelevant data. Memory systems – Sensory memory (fleeting trace), Short‑term memory (STM) (temporary hold, 7 ± 2 items), Long‑term memory (LTM) (stable storage). Working memory – active processing/maintenance of information despite distraction; modeled by Baddeley & Hitch (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive, episodic buffer). Long‑term memory subsystems – Procedural (how‑to skills), Semantic (facts), Episodic (personal events). Dual‑process theory – System 1 (fast, intuitive, automatic) vs System 2 (slow, deliberative, effortful). Metacognition – thoughts about one’s own thinking; includes self‑monitoring, strategy selection, and evaluation of performance. Theory of mind – ability to attribute mental states to self and others; emerges 4‑6 yr, a milestone of metacognitive development. --- 📌 Must Remember Seven ± 2 rule – average working‑memory capacity ≈ 7 items (range 5‑9). Serial position effect – better recall for primacy (beginning) and recency (end) items. Von Restorff (isolation) effect – distinctive items are recalled more readily. Exogenous attention = bottom‑up, stimulus‑driven (pop‑out). Endogenous attention = top‑down, goal‑driven (divided/voluntary focus). Cocktail‑party effect – you can notice personally relevant information (e.g., your name) in an unattended channel. Baddeley & Hitch components: Phonological loop – verbal rehearsal. Visuospatial sketchpad – visual‑spatial info. Central executive – attentional control, coordination. Episodic buffer – integrates WM with LTM. Dual‑process: System 1 operates automatically; System 2 requires conscious effort and is limited in capacity. Metacognitive strategies improve learning: self‑questioning, goal setting, monitoring, and adjusting tactics. --- 🔄 Key Processes Encoding → Storage → Retrieval (Memory) Sensory → STM (maintenance rehearsal) → LTM (consolidation). Baddeley & Hitch Working‑Memory Cycle Input → Phonological loop / Visuospatial sketchpad → Central executive (manipulation) → Episodic buffer → LTM. Selective Attention (Dichotic Listening) Attend to one ear → Inhibit the other → Ability to switch focus when prompted. Dual‑Process Decision Making Rapid System 1 impression → If conflict or stakes high, engage System 2 for deliberation. Metacognitive Regulation Loop Plan → Monitor (self‑question) → Evaluate outcome → Adjust strategies. --- 🔍 Key Comparisons Exogenous vs. Endogenous attention Exogenous: stimulus‑driven, automatic, “pop‑out”. Endogenous: goal‑driven, voluntary, supports divided attention. System 1 vs. System 2 (Dual‑process) System 1: fast, automatic, low effort, prone to biases. System 2: slow, effortful, logical, capacity‑limited. Procedural vs. Semantic vs. Episodic memory Procedural: “how” knowledge, implicit. Semantic: factual, explicit, decontextualized. Episodic: personal events, contextual, conscious recollection. --- ⚠️ Common Misunderstandings “Memory is a single store.” – It’s a system of distinct buffers (sensory, STM, WM, LTM) with different properties. “Attention equals consciousness.” – You can attend to information without being fully aware (e.g., subliminal cues). “System 1 is always wrong.” – It’s efficient and often accurate; errors arise when System 1 is applied to tasks that need System 2. “Metacognition is only about feeling confident.” – It also involves strategy selection, monitoring accuracy, and error correction. --- 🧠 Mental Models / Intuition “Mental filing cabinet” – Think of LTM as organized shelves (semantic, episodic, procedural) that WM pulls from via the central executive. “Spotlight vs. floodlight” – Exogenous attention is a sudden spotlight on a salient stimulus; endogenous attention is a controllable floodlight you move intentionally. “Fast lane vs. slow lane” – System 1 drives the fast lane of mental traffic; System 2 is the slower lane used when the fast lane is congested or hazardous. --- 🚩 Exceptions & Edge Cases Recency effect may disappear if a distractor task fills STM before recall. Von Restorff advantage fades when multiple distinctive items are presented (distinctiveness is relative). Cocktail‑party effect is strongest for personally salient cues (e.g., own name); other salient sounds may not break through. Dual‑process: Some tasks (e.g., complex pattern recognition) can be performed by trained System 1 expertise, bypassing System 2. --- 📍 When to Use Which Use the phonological loop when the task involves verbal rehearsal (e.g., remembering a phone number). Use the visuospatial sketchpad for mental rotation or map navigation tasks. Engage System 2 for problems requiring logical deduction, probability assessment, or overriding an intuitive bias. Apply metacognitive monitoring before high‑stakes exams: set specific goals, self‑test, and adjust study tactics. --- 👀 Patterns to Recognize Primacy‑recency pattern in list‑learning questions → expect higher recall for first/last items. Distinctiveness cue → items described as “odd” or “different” are likely answer stems for recall questions. Dual‑process wording – questions mentioning “fast”, “automatic”, or “gut feeling” signal System 1; “deliberate”, “calculate”, “reason” signal System 2. Metacognitive language – “monitor”, “evaluate”, “adjust” often cue strategy‑based answer choices. --- 🗂️ Exam Traps Distractor: “Attention = Consciousness.” – Incorrect; attention can operate without full awareness. Distractor: “All memory is stored in STM.” – Wrong; STM is a temporary buffer, LTM holds durable info. Distractor: “System 1 is always biased.” – Overgeneralization; System 1 is efficient and accurate in many everyday judgments. Distractor: “The phonological loop processes visual images.” – Confuses with visuospatial sketchpad. Distractor: “Metacognition only involves confidence judgments.” – Ignores planning, monitoring, and regulation components. ---