Reflective practice - Core Models of Reflection

Models of Reflective Practice Reflective practice is a structured approach to learning from experience. Rather than simply completing an action and moving on, practitioners deliberately pause to examine what happened, why it happened, and how to improve in the future. Over the decades, educational theorists have developed various frameworks to guide this reflection process. Each model emphasizes different aspects of learning and offers a distinct pathway for practitioners to grow from their experiences. Borton's "What – So What – Now What" Model (1970) Borton's model is one of the simplest and most elegant reflective frameworks. It asks practitioners to move through three straightforward questions: "What happened?" (Description) Start by describing the situation objectively. What actually occurred? Who was involved? What did you observe? This step grounds your reflection in concrete facts rather than opinions or interpretations. "So what?" (Analysis and Significance) Next, move beyond mere description to analysis. What was the significance of what happened? Why does it matter? What can you learn from it? This is where you examine your feelings, identify what went well and what went poorly, and begin to understand the deeper meaning of the experience. "Now what?" (Action and Planning) Finally, use these insights to plan for the future. What will you do differently next time? How will this experience change your practice? This step ensures that reflection translates into actual change. The strength of Borton's model is its simplicity—it can be applied to almost any experience with minimal training. However, this simplicity also means it provides less structured guidance compared to more detailed models. Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle (1975) Kolb's model describes learning as a continuous four-stage cycle that repeats and builds upon itself. Concrete Experience Learning begins with a real experience. You do something, observe something, or participate in something. This is the actual event or situation. Reflective Observation After the experience, you step back and reflect on what happened. You think about different perspectives on the experience and examine it from various angles. You observe what occurred without immediately trying to explain it. Abstract Conceptualisation During this stage, you develop theories or general principles based on your reflection. You draw on existing knowledge and frameworks to make sense of what you experienced. You create concepts or refine understanding. For instance, after observing several classroom discussions, you might develop the concept that "students learn better when they feel psychologically safe to ask questions." Active Experimentation Finally, you test your new concepts by trying them out in practice. This leads to new concrete experiences, and the cycle repeats. The model emphasizes that learning is not a one-time event but an ongoing spiral where each cycle builds on previous learning. The key insight of Kolb's model is that all four stages are necessary. Simply having an experience teaches you nothing without reflection; reflection without testing new ideas in practice is equally limited. Effective learning integrates all four stages. Argyris and Schön's Theory of Single-Loop and Double-Loop Learning (1978) This theory distinguishes between two fundamentally different types of learning, and this distinction is important to understand clearly as it's often confused. Single-Loop Learning Single-loop learning occurs when you correct an error while keeping your underlying strategies, goals, and policies unchanged. Think of it like adjusting the thermostat when the room temperature isn't quite right—you're fixing the problem within the existing system. For example: A teacher notices that students aren't completing homework assignments. The teacher responds by giving more reminders and making the assignments shorter. The assignment is now completed, and the error is corrected. However, the teacher hasn't questioned whether homework assignments are actually the best learning approach or whether the underlying student motivation issues need addressing. The basic approach and assumptions remain unchanged. Double-Loop Learning Double-loop learning goes deeper. It modifies the underlying objectives, strategies, policies, or assumptions themselves. It involves questioning "why" we do things the way we do, not just "how" to fix problems within the existing framework. Using the same example: A teacher notices incomplete homework and, rather than just adjusting the assignments, asks fundamental questions: "Why do I assign homework?" "What are students actually learning from it?" "Are there better ways to achieve my learning goals?" This might lead to a complete restructuring of how the class works—perhaps replacing traditional homework with in-class collaborative projects. The fundamental approach, not just the details, has changed. Why This Matters Single-loop learning is efficient for routine problems and incremental improvement. Double-loop learning is necessary for addressing deeply rooted problems or when the existing system itself is ineffective. Most organizations and individuals spend most of their time in single-loop learning because it's less demanding, but lasting transformation requires double-loop learning. Gibbs' Structured Debriefing Cycle (1988) Gibbs' cycle is more detailed and structured than Borton's model, providing explicit stages for processing an experience. It's particularly popular in healthcare and clinical education settings. Description Begin by describing what happened in factual, objective terms. What was the situation? What did you do? What did others do? This is purely narrative—avoid judgments at this stage. Feelings Now identify and articulate your emotional responses. How did you feel during the experience? What emotions arose? What about now as you reflect? This step validates that emotions are an important part of learning and shouldn't be ignored. Evaluation Make judgments about the experience. What went well? What went poorly? What was positive about your actions? What was negative? Here you begin assessing rather than just describing. Analysis This is the analytical core of the cycle. Make sense of the situation using ideas and concepts from outside the experience itself. What theories or frameworks help explain what happened? What do you know from your training, research, or other sources that applies? Why did things turn out as they did? Conclusions (General) Draw out overarching lessons or insights. What have you learned more broadly? What general principles or insights apply beyond this specific situation? Conclusions (Specific) Apply those general lessons to your own situation and practice. How do these insights specifically relate to you and your work? What do they mean for how you operate? Action Plan Finally, decide what you will do differently. How will you change your practice based on what you've learned? What specific actions will you take? The strength of Gibbs' cycle is its detail—each stage provides clear guidance. The weakness is that it requires more time and structure to complete, making it less practical for quick reflection on routine experiences. Johns' Five Patterns of Knowing Model (1995) Rather than describing stages of a reflective cycle, Johns identifies five different dimensions or types of knowledge that practitioners should develop through reflection. All five are necessary for complete professional understanding. Aesthetic Knowing This is understanding the "art" of practice—the intuitive, skillful, creative dimensions of what you do. It's the ability to recognize what a situation calls for and respond appropriately, often without explicitly articulating why. A nurse showing aesthetic knowing might instinctively recognize a patient is becoming distressed before obvious signs appear. Personal Knowing This involves recognizing and understanding your own values, beliefs, experiences, and how they shape your practice. What do you bring to your work? What matters to you? How do your personal characteristics influence your interactions and decisions? Ethical Knowing This means considering the moral and ethical dimensions of your actions. What are the ethical implications of your decisions? Whose interests are being served? Are you acting in ways consistent with your professional values and societal ethics? Empirical Knowing This is knowledge based on evidence—research findings, established theories, best practices, and tested information. It answers the question: What does evidence tell us about effective practice? This is the traditional scientific knowledge base of a profession. Reflexive Knowing This is the ability to step back and critically examine your own assumptions, biases, and habitual ways of thinking. It involves asking challenging questions about why you do things the way you do. Are your assumptions justified? What am I taking for granted? Johns' model emphasizes that good practice requires integration of all five types of knowing. A practitioner relying only on empirical knowing will be rigid and potentially ineffective; one relying only on personal knowing might be inconsistent or unprofessional. Reflection should develop all dimensions. Nguyen Nhat Quang's Iceberg Model of Reflection (2022) This recent model proposes that reflection operates at different depths, with each deeper level producing more significant learning and change. Descriptive Reflection (Tip of the Iceberg) At the surface level, descriptive reflection provides narrative accounts of what happened. You describe events, tell the story of what occurred, but you don't analyze or question deeply. This is the starting point but insufficient by itself for meaningful learning. Dialogic Reflection (Just Below the Surface) Moving deeper, dialogic reflection involves asking yourself questions and generating dialogue—internal conversation or discussion with others. You engage in iterative self-questioning: "Why did I react that way?" "What if I had done this instead?" "What would happen if...?" This generates multiple perspectives and alternative interpretations of the experience. It's more analytical than descriptive reflection but still relatively accessible. Transformative Reflection (Middle Layer) At this deeper level, you revisit issues and problems with fresh eyes, generating new solutions that can actually change outcomes. You're not just thinking differently; you're changing how you understand and respond to situations. This level of reflection produces genuine behavioral and attitudinal change. Critical Reflection (Deepest Layer) The deepest reflection analyzes incidents through social, historical, political, and cultural lenses. This means asking: What role do power structures play here? What assumptions does my practice rest on? How do my actions affect different groups? How am I influenced by broader cultural or institutional contexts? Critical reflection challenges fundamental assumptions and often reveals how wider systems and structures shape what seemed like purely individual situations. The iceberg model is particularly useful because it suggests that not all reflection is equally valuable. Quick, surface-level reflection provides some benefit, but transformative and critical reflection—requiring more time and depth—produce the most significant learning and change. <extrainfo> OODA Loop (John Boyd) The OODA loop (Observe, Orient, Decide, Act) offers an alternative framework to traditional reflective cycles. Rather than emphasizing lengthy analysis, it emphasizes rapid, intuitive decision-making informed by continuous observation. This model has been influential in military strategy and high-stakes decision-making environments, but is less commonly used in general reflective practice than the models discussed above. </extrainfo> Understanding Key Distinctions To consolidate your learning, here are important distinctions between these models: Simplicity vs. Structure: Borton's model is the simplest (three questions), while Gibbs' cycle is more detailed (six stages). More structure provides clearer guidance but requires more time. Focus: Borton and Kolb emphasize the cyclical process of learning. Argyris and Schön emphasize the depth of learning (single vs. double-loop). Johns emphasizes the types of knowledge developed. The iceberg model emphasizes the depth and transformative potential of reflection. Audience: Gibbs' cycle is particularly popular in healthcare and clinical education. Kolb's model is widely used across educational contexts. Argyris and Schön's theory is influential in organizational learning. Johns' model is prominent in nursing education. All these models are complementary rather than contradictory. A practitioner might use Borton's framework for quick reflection on everyday experiences, Gibbs' cycle for deeper analysis of complex situations, and reference Johns' patterns of knowing to ensure they're developing complete professional understanding. Understanding multiple models gives you flexibility in how you approach reflection depending on context and available time.