Science Study Guide

📖 Core Concepts Science – a systematic discipline that builds knowledge through testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Branches of Science Natural Science – studies the physical world (life & physical science). Social Science – studies human behaviour and societies; relies on historical, case‑study, and statistical methods. Formal Science – uses deductive reasoning (logic, mathematics, theoretical CS); no empirical data required. Applied Science – employs the scientific method to solve practical problems (engineering, medicine). Basic vs. Applied – Basic seeks explanatory theories; Applied uses those theories for concrete goals. Blue‑sky Research – curiosity‑driven projects without immediate applications; often seed breakthroughs (e.g., genetics, stem‑cell work). Computational Science – uses computer simulations, machine learning, AI to explore problems beyond analytic math. Scientific Method – observation → hypothesis → prediction → experiment → analysis → theory. Hypothesis – parsimonious, falsifiable statement that must align with existing facts (consilience). Theory – a self‑consistent model that explains a broad range of observations; multiple hypotheses can be bound under one theory. Philosophical Stances Empiricism – knowledge from observation; theories generalise observations. Rationalism – knowledge from intellect alone (Descartes). Critical Rationalism (Popper) – falsifiability is the demarcation of science; theories survive until contradicted. Instrumentalism – theories are tools for prediction; unobservable entities are irrelevant. Constructive Empiricism – only observable aspects need be true for a theory to be successful. Kuhn’s Paradigm Theory – normal science works within a paradigm; anomalies trigger paradigm shifts. Methodological Naturalism – scientific inquiry is limited to natural explanations; supernatural causes are excluded. --- 📌 Must Remember Science ≠ Technology – science seeks understanding; technology applies that understanding. Formal sciences rely exclusively on deductive reasoning; they are a priori and need no experiments. Popper’s criterion: a theory is scientific iff it is falsifiable. Kuhn: paradigm shifts occur when accumulated anomalies cannot be resolved within the current paradigm. Replication Crisis: many social‑life science findings fail to reproduce; driven by publication bias, p‑hacking, underpowered studies. Science vs. Pseudoscience Checklist – must be falsifiable, reproducible, and grounded in empirical evidence. Basic vs. Applied Decision: basic research advances theory; applied research targets a specific practical problem. --- 🔄 Key Processes Formulating a Hypothesis Identify a phenomenon → propose a parsimonious, falsifiable statement → ensure consistency with existing knowledge. Testing the Hypothesis Derive clear predictions → design controlled experiment (or observational study) → collect data → statistical analysis. From Hypothesis to Theory Repeatedly surviving tests → integration with other hypotheses → construction of a broad, self‑consistent model. Ensuring Reliability Transparent methods → peer review → independent replication → meta‑research (power analysis, data sharing). Paradigm Shift Cycle (Kuhn) Normal science → detection of anomalies → crisis → emergence of a new paradigm → return to normal science. --- 🔍 Key Comparisons Basic Science vs. Applied Science – Goal: understanding vs. solving; Outcome: theory vs. product/technology. Formal Science vs. Natural Science – Method: deduction vs. induction/experimentation; Evidence: none required vs. empirical data needed. Empiricism vs. Rationalism – Source of knowledge: observation vs. intellect alone. Popperian Falsifiability vs. Verificationism – Demarcation: can be proven false vs. can be repeatedly confirmed. Instrumentalism vs. Constructive Empiricism – View of unobservables: irrelevant tools vs. not required to be true. --- ⚠️ Common Misunderstandings “A theory is a proven fact.” Theories remain provisional; they are the best current explanations, always open to falsification. “Pseudoscience is just ‘science not yet proven.’” Pseudoscientific claims lack falsifiable tests and reproducibility. “All scientific fields use the same experimental methods.” Social sciences often rely on statistical and case‑study methods because controlled experiments are hard. “Replication equals validation.” Replication reduces false positives but does not prove a theory is true; it only shows results are reliable under the same conditions. --- 🧠 Mental Models / Intuition Science as a map: Branches are terrain types (mountains = natural, cities = social, grids = formal). Navigation requires different tools (fieldwork, surveys, proofs). Hypothesis as a tent pole: If a single test knocks it down, the whole tent collapses → underscores the power of falsification. Paradigm as a pair of glasses: You see data through the current lenses; a shift changes the lenses, revealing previously hidden patterns. --- 🚩 Exceptions & Edge Cases Formal sciences (e.g., pure mathematics) produce knowledge without empirical verification. Applied research may generate new basic insights (e.g., engineering breakthroughs leading to new physics). Social sciences sometimes achieve quasi‑experimental control (field experiments, natural experiments). Methodological naturalism excludes supernatural explanations but does not forbid philosophical speculation about causality. --- 📍 When to Use Which Choose Basic vs. Applied – If the aim is to explain a phenomenon → basic; if the aim is to solve a concrete problem → applied. Choose Formal vs. Natural Approach – When the problem is abstract and can be expressed in axioms → formal; when empirical data are available → natural. Select Philosophical Lens – For engineering‑type predictions, instrumentalism suffices; for epistemological debates, constructive empiricism or Popperian falsifiability is more appropriate. Apply Replication Strategies – In fields with high variability (psychology, biomedical), prioritize preregistration, large sample sizes, and multi‑lab collaborations. --- 👀 Patterns to Recognize Anomaly Cluster → Paradigm Shift – Look for multiple observations that the current model cannot explain. Statistical Red Flags – Small sample size, p‑values just below .05, lack of pre‑registration → likely low reproducibility. Pseudoscientific Language – Vague terms (“energy,” “vibrations”), appeal to authority, anecdotal testimonials. Citation Chains – Repeated citation of the same limited data set may signal entrenched but weak evidence. --- 🗂️ Exam Traps “All scientific theories are proven facts.” – Trick answer; remember theories are provisional and falsifiable. “Pseudoscience is merely untested science.” – Incorrect; pseudoscience fails the falsifiability and reproducibility criteria. Confusing “empiricism” with “rationalism.” – Remember empiricism = observation‑driven; rationalism = intellect‑driven. Assuming the replication crisis only affects psychology. – It also impacts parts of biology, medicine, and other life/social sciences. Equating “methodological naturalism” with “philosophical naturalism.” – The former restricts method to natural explanations; the latter is a broader worldview. ---