Sophocles - Surviving Works and Summaries

Sophocles' Literary Output and Major Works Introduction Sophocles was one of the three great tragedians of ancient Greece, and his surviving works represent some of the most important and frequently studied plays in Western literature. While ancient sources credit him with composing over 120 plays, only seven complete tragedies survive to the present day. These seven plays form the foundation of what we know about Sophocles' dramatic art and continue to be performed and analyzed over 2,400 years after they were written. The Seven Surviving Plays The seven complete tragedies that survive are: Ajax, Antigone, Women of Trachis, Oedipus Rex, Electra, Philoctetes, and Oedipus at Colonus. Of these, the three Theban plays—Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, and Antigone—are by far the most celebrated and most frequently studied. It's important to understand that Sophocles composed far more plays than what survives. The loss of over 110 plays is largely a matter of historical accident; manuscripts deteriorated and were not continuously copied. The seven plays that remain are the ones that were deemed most worth preserving by ancient copyists. The Theban Plays: An Important Clarification Before discussing the three Theban plays individually, it's crucial to understand something that often confuses students: these three plays were not written as a connected trilogy meant to be performed together. They were written separately for different festival competitions, with Antigone composed first, Oedipus Rex second, and Oedipus at Colonus last—yet they tell a continuous story across the generations of the Theban royal family. This accounts for certain inconsistencies in how characters are portrayed (particularly Creon), which we'll address later. We refer to them as the "Theban Trilogy" because they all focus on the house of Labdacus and the curse that affects Thebes, not because they were originally presented as a unified work. Oedipus Rex (Oedipus the King) Oedipus Rex is the most famous of Sophocles' plays and is often considered the masterpiece of Greek tragedy. The play opens with Thebes suffering from a devastating plague. Oedipus, the king, sends his brother-in-law Creon to consult the oracle at Delphi to learn how to save the city. The oracle's response sets the tragedy in motion: the plague will end only when the person responsible for the death of the previous king, Laius, is punished. Oedipus swears to find and exile the murderer. However, through a series of investigations and the revelations of the prophet Tiresias, Oedipus discovers a horrifying truth: he himself killed Laius (in a chance encounter on the road years ago) and he has married Jocasta, Laius's widow and his own mother, unknowingly fulfilling a prophecy made about him at birth. Jocasta commits suicide upon learning the truth, and Oedipus blinds himself in horror and despair before going into exile. The play demonstrates how Oedipus, for all his intelligence and good intentions, cannot escape his fate and is ultimately responsible for his own downfall. Oedipus at Colonus This play takes place many years later, as the now-blind and exiled Oedipus, accompanied by his daughter Antigone, arrives at Colonus, a sanctuary near Athens. King Theseus of Athens, known for his justice and compassion, listens to Oedipus's story and grants him protection. However, Creon arrives from Thebes demanding that Oedipus return, claiming that an oracle has prophesied that Thebes will have no peace unless Oedipus is buried within Theban territory. Theseus refuses to surrender Oedipus against his will. Additionally, Oedipus's son Polynices arrives seeking his father's blessing for an invasion of Thebes against the current ruler Creon. Oedipus rejects both demands—he will not return to Thebes and will not support Polynices's rebellion. Unlike the other two Theban plays, Oedipus at Colonus ends peacefully. Oedipus dies at the play's conclusion and is given an honorable burial by Theseus, finding a kind of redemption after his long suffering. <extrainfo> This play is notable for being set in Athens (not Thebes) and for depicting Theseus as a noble leader—this reflects the Athenian pride in their democracy and their reputation for offering sanctuary to the persecuted. </extrainfo> Antigone Antigone completes the Theban story, though it was written before Oedipus Rex. After the failed attack known as the Seven Against Thebes (in which Polynices died fighting his brother Eteocles), the new ruler Creon issues a decree: Polynices' body will remain unburied as punishment for his rebellion. In ancient Greece, this is an enormous violation—denying proper burial rites meant the soul could not find peace. Antigone, sister to both fallen brothers, decides that she must defy Creon's order and bury Polynices herself, knowing this action will result in her execution. Her sister Ismene refuses to help, arguing that they cannot fight the state's power. Antigone buries Polynices anyway and is captured. Creon sentences Antigone to death. However, after the prophet Tiresias and others convince him of his error, Creon attempts to reverse his decision—but he is too late. Antigone has hanged herself in her tomb. Creon's own son Haemon, who was engaged to Antigone, kills himself in grief. Creon's wife Eurydice, upon hearing of her son's death, also takes her own life. The play ends with Creon utterly devastated, having destroyed his entire family through his rigidity and pride. Inconsistencies in the Theban Plays Students often notice apparent contradictions when reading the Theban plays in order. The most obvious inconsistency involves Creon's role as ruler. In Oedipus Rex, Creon is portrayed as a loyal advisor to King Oedipus—he is not contesting for power, and there is no indication of succession struggles. However, in Antigone and Oedipus at Colonus, Creon appears as the ruler of Thebes, and both plays reference succession conflicts between Oedipus's sons, Eteocles and Polynices. This is not a mistake on Sophocles' part; rather, it reflects the fact that these plays were written separately with different dramatic focuses and not intended to form a perfectly consistent timeline. When studying these plays, it's important to understand each on its own terms rather than assuming complete narrative consistency. Other Surviving Plays Beyond the Theban cycle, four other complete plays survive. Ajax tells of the proud Trojan War hero Ajax, who descends into madness after his request for Achilles' armor is denied (it goes instead to Odysseus) and ultimately commits suicide. Electra recounts how the siblings Electra and Orestes avenge their father Agamemnon's murder by killing both their mother Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. <extrainfo> Women of Trachis dramatizes the tragic death of the hero Heracles, who dies when his wife Deianeira unknowingly applies a poisoned garment to him, believing it to be a love charm. Philoctetes centers on the abandoned archer Philoctetes, whose magical bow is needed for the Greeks to achieve victory at Troy; he is eventually persuaded to rejoin the Greek army when the hero Heracles appears to him in a miraculous deus ex machina intervention. </extrainfo>