Second-language acquisition Study Guide

📖 Core Concepts Second Language (L2) – any language learned after a first language. Second‑Language Acquisition (SLA) – what learners do when picking up an L2; not a teaching method. Interlanguage – the learner’s evolving, systematic mental grammar that sits between the L1 and the target L2. Fossilization – a plateau where interlanguage stops improving despite continued exposure. Transfer – influence of previously‑known languages (L1, other L2s) on new L2 production. Learnability vs. Teachability – learners acquire language in natural stages (learnability); instruction works best when it matches the learner’s current stage (teachability hypothesis). Cognitive vs. Sociocultural Factors – memory, attention, and mental representations on one side; social identity, motivation, and interaction on the other. --- 📌 Must Remember Uniqueness Principle: learners prefer a one‑to‑one mapping between form and meaning. Subset Principle: start with the narrowest hypothesis space that fits the data; expand only when needed. Critical Period Hypothesis: adult learners rarely achieve native‑like pronunciation; fossilization is common. Teachability Hypothesis: effective instruction aligns with the learner’s current acquisition stage. Regression Hypothesis (Attrition): loss occurs in the reverse order of acquisition (productive skills → receptive). Acculturation Model (Schumann): social + psychological distance from the target community predicts SLA speed. Gardner’s Socio‑Educational Model: motivation, integrativeness, attitudes drive success. Dual‑Mode Representation: language knowledge stored as rule‑based (explicit) and item‑based (implicit) representations. --- 🔄 Key Processes Intake → Long‑Term Storage → Production (computational model) Intake: brief short‑term memory of input. Conversion: encoding into declarative (facts) or procedural (skills) memory. Production: retrieve procedural knowledge for spoken output. Acquisition Sequence (English morphology) Common order: (a) Present progressive → (b) Past tense → (c) Third‑person –s (variations exist). Transfer Evaluation Identify L1 feature → compare with L2 input → predict likely error (positive/negative transfer). Teachability Alignment Diagnose current interlanguage stage → choose task that reinforces that stage rather than jump ahead. --- 🔍 Key Comparisons Acquisition vs. Learning – Acquisition: largely subconscious; Learning: conscious (now largely synonymous). Implicit Knowledge vs. Explicit Knowledge – Implicit: unconscious, procedural; Explicit: conscious, rule‑based. Declarative vs. Procedural Knowledge – Declarative: “knowing that” (vocab, rules); Procedural: “knowing how” (fluency, automaticity). Free Variation vs. Systemic Variation – Free: interchangeable forms; Systemic: variation driven by context (formality, subject type). --- ⚠️ Common Misunderstandings “All errors = failures.” Errors reveal systematic interlanguage rules; they are diagnostic, not just mistakes. “Teaching grammar alone guarantees acquisition.” Instruction must match the learner’s stage; otherwise it may be ignored. “Adults can’t improve pronunciation.” Adults can improve with targeted input, but fossilization makes native‑like phonology unlikely. “Transfer is always negative.” Transfer can be positive (cognates, similar syntax) or negative (interference). --- 🧠 Mental Models / Intuition “Puzzle‑Fit” Model: Think of the learner’s mind as a puzzle board; each new L2 form fits only if it uniquely maps to meaning (Uniqueness Principle). “Narrow Funnel” Analogy: Hypotheses start in a narrow funnel (Subset Principle) and widen only when data forces it. “Two‑Track Highway” – One lane carries explicit rules (declarative), the other carries implicit habits (procedural); both lead to fluent production. --- 🚩 Exceptions & Edge Cases Typological Influence: Articles and progressive aspect are highly L1‑dependent; third‑person –s shows less L1 effect. Individual Variation: High language aptitude can accelerate acquisition, sometimes bypassing typical sequences. Fossilization despite Input: Even abundant correct input may not overcome a fossilized interlanguage if the learner lacks motivation or sufficient working memory. Attrition Reversal: Re‑exposure can reactivate dormant procedural knowledge, but full recovery is rare if the original proficiency was low. --- 📍 When to Use Which Use Uniqueness Principle when designing input‑rich activities that highlight clear form‑meaning links (e.g., picture‑sentence matching). Apply Subset Principle when presenting grammatical rules: start with the simplest, most restrictive pattern before introducing exceptions. Choose Implicit Practice (role‑plays, timed speaking) for procedural consolidation; Explicit instruction (rule explanation, metalinguistic feedback) for newly introduced forms. Select Transfer Analysis for diagnostic error correction: compare L1 structures to target L2 to predict likely interferences. --- 👀 Patterns to Recognize Consistent Error Types → point to systematic interlanguage rules (e.g., omitting articles across contexts). Context‑Triggered Variation → form changes with interlocutor status or time pressure (systemic variation). Stage‑Specific Grammatical Features – certain morphemes appear only after the learner has mastered earlier ones (acquisition sequence). Positive vs. Negative Transfer Cues – cognates and shared syntax signal likely positive transfer; divergent structures signal negative transfer. --- 🗂️ Exam Traps “All errors are random.” – distractor; exam will expect you to identify systematic interlanguage patterns. “Teachability hypothesis = only teach what learners already know.” – misleading; the hypothesis means align instruction with the current stage, not avoid new material. “Fossilization cannot be reversed.” – false; intensive, focused input can sometimes break a fossilized plateau. “Critical period means adults cannot learn grammar.” – trap; adults can acquire grammar, but may retain accent and plateau in certain features. “Transfer always hinders learning.” – incorrect; expect a question that asks you to give examples of positive transfer. ---